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Until the early twentieth century, most people relied on horses and buggies, railroads, and local and interurban streetcars to get around. People's earliest transportation into and around Michigan was by horse and buggy. These vehicles traveled mainly on roads made of dirt and wood, so the ride was bumpy, uncomfortable, and difficult. But the invention of the automobile had a tremendous impact on American culture across the nation. And the history of the car has had particular significance in Michigan because of Henry Ford's motor plant and Detroit's role in the nation's automobile industry.
The first automobile was invented just before 1900, and Henry Ford introduced his Model T—the most popular of early American cars—in 1909. Until World War I, cars were very expensive and only wealthy Michigan residents could afford one. By the 1920s, the assembly line had decreased the average time it took to make one car from thirteen hours to just ten minutes. Mass production techniques pioneered in Ford's Michigan factories made the standardized Model T very affordable. In 1924, it cost roughly $300, or three months good factory wages. This poster, made in 1950, shows the evolution of the Model T from the invention of the car in 1896 to the 1950 design.
Good cars increased demand for good roads. Early cars traveled on the same roads as horses and carriages. In dry months they kicked up a lot of dust, and after the rain they sometimes got stuck in mud. In Ann Arbor, as early as 1896 the Board of Public Works recommended that business streets be paved with brick or cobblestone. In 1905, the Michigan State Highway Department was formed, a special state government office dedicated to the construction and maintenance of roads. The growing popularity of the car encouraged public spending on roads and Ann Arbor citizens seemed to support paying taxes that would improve roads. In 1917, Governor Woodbridge N. Ferris told the state legislature that citizens supported road building because "No one thing is more important for the further progress of our cities and especially for the further progress of our farming communities than good roads. Even our schools and churches depend for their success in no small degree upon good roads."
By the 1920s, Ann Arbor residents and Americans in general had wholeheartedly embraced the car. Gas stations like this one replaced stables, automobile repair shops replaced blacksmiths, and in front of Ann Arbor businesses, diagonal parking spaces replaced hitching posts. While only one automobile manufacturing plant was located in Ann Arbor, the Huron River Manufacturing Company, the car had a tremendous impact on the city's economy. Several local firms manufactured accessories like odometers (which tell how far the car has traveled) and fuel gauges (which show how much gasoline is left in the tank). More importantly, however, Ann Arbor became a research center for matters pertaining to the car. As the automobile industry became more and more competitive, companies like Ford strove to make their products more appealing. Research central to this process was conducted in Ann Arbor. The University of Michigan formed a laboratory specifically designed to research automobile and engine design. College courses in the Department of Automotive Engineering, such as the 1927 class pictured here, test-drove new models as part of their studies. This photograph taken in the lab between 1935 and 1940 pictures a device called the "seater-meter" designed to produce the most comfortable car seat possible.
Not everyone embraced the car, however. It brought its own set of problems and many Ann Arbor residents treated it with ambivalence. Issues of safety, traffic control, dust, and later parking became central to city politics. This newspaper article from 1911 shows that residents worried that the car would make streets unsafe for pedestrians and children. By 1911, citizens placed increasing pressures on police and city officials to enforce the 10-15 mph speed limits. The public also continued pressuring the city to pave more of Ann Arbor's many miles of road, particularly in residential areas. Cars kicked up a lot of dust, and residents argued that paved roads would make Ann Arbor more sanitary and a more pleasant place to live and work.
Still, by the 1920s, the popularity of the automobile won out. People drove to work, to the market, and to downtown areas for shopping and leisure. Horses and buggies were almost gone by the late 1920s, and public transportation struggled to break even. The car provided stiff competition for streetcars, buses, and other modes of local transportation. Moreover, this political cartoon, drawn by Percy W. Cromwell of the Detroit Free Press, shows that drivers of private automobiles often considered public transit more of a nuisance on the road than a benefit to the community. While local public transportation struggled, railroads endured well into the era of air travel--for long distances, rail transport was still cheaper and easier than driving a car.
For many Ann Arbor citizens, the automobile was a form of self-expression. Roy D. Chapin, a leader of Ann Arbor's "good roads movement," showed this tendency when, at a conference at the University of Michigan in 1921, he said that "Individual expression demanded individual transportation, and American inventive genius was the first to supply the low-priced motor car and truck." The car became more and more central to people's recreational lives. People took drives in the countryside, drove into town for evenings shopping or at the theatre, and even fished from their cars! In 1925, the Ann Arbor Automobile Club printed a brochure for an "automobile tour" of downtown Ann Arbor that could be taken in one's car at any time. The tour passed "main points of interest" in the city like State Street, the courthouse, and "the most attractive portions" of its surrounding areas like the Huron River.
The increasing importance of the car to life in Ann Arbor was particularly apparent among young adults of the 1920s. They had grown up alongside the automobile and were accustomed to its convenience. In the car, they escaped from the control of parents and teachers, and for many Ann Arbor students, driving around town itself became a form of leisure. However, parents and city leaders in the words of historian John Marwil, "shuddered when they saw cars overflowing with fun-seeking adolescents careening down their streets." (110)
In 1927, these concerns led the University of Michigan Board of Regents to prohibit students from owning cars. They felt that college students were not old enough to treat cars responsibly. One member of the University Board of Regents' Automobile Committee, Evelyn Murray, even claimed that "the use of cars is [a] hinderance to the intellectual life of students." In this document from June 1927, the Dean of Students recommended that the University restrict student car ownership. The Dean's recommendations were enacted the following year. While students found several ways to get around this rule, for the most part the policy kept student ownership to a minimum. Students resisted the ban on car ownership, and in this letter from October 1927, the Student Council called for a more moderate ban--one that would allow "upperclassmen" to own cars. No action was taken, however, and the ban on student ownership remained in place well into the thirties.
The car has remained central to life in Ann Arbor since the twenties. Even the Great Depression did not sway Ann Arbor's enthusiasm about the automobile--car ownership rose throughout the thirties. However, as more and more people drove cars, concerns about traffic and parking became more important. In 1937, public clamor emerged when the city attempted to place parking meters in front of local businesses. Two newspaper articles from the era provide a glimpse of some of the issues at stake. The city wanted meters as a source of income during the depression, and also to limit downtown congestion. Many businesses also wanted meters with time limits to encourage a greater number of potential customers. Private citizens resented having to pay for parking, however, and, like the woman to the right, vigorously protested parking meters. The city prevailed, and parking meters, like the automobile, proved permanent fixtures in city life.
Discussion Questions
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From The Daily Times News, September 7, 1911, p.1 Look Out Joy Riders the Motor Cop Will Get You Council last evening provided for purchase of motor cycle for use by the police in stopping auto speeding on the streest of city. Council last night took the step logically necessary to enforce the recently adopted traffic ordinance by authorizing the police committee to buy a motorcycle. The committee is to use its judgement as to whether to get a single seated machine or one capable of carrying two men for use in emergency calls. The sentiment among the eight members of council present at last night's meeting was strongly infavor of doing something to curb automobile speeding. The only question raised was whether one motor cycle would be enough. "I believe we have been economical with our police department," declared Alderman Lindenschmitt. "The department is handicapped in carrying out the ordinance passed a few days ago. We ought to get a motor cycle more speedy than the automobiles. Perhaps it would be well to get one with two seats for use in night calls." "It may be all right to have a motorcycle to get the fellows whose numbers you can't see," said Alderman Lutz. "But how are you going to patrol the city with one motorcycle? I want to ask the chief of police how he is going to do that when speeders are running wild on North Main =street and Huron street. I haven't any doubt that they will use Packard street as a speedway too, as soon as it's finished. Another thing, who's going to ride this motor cycle. We have some pretty stout policemen, and I'm not in favor of spending a lot of money for a motorcycle if it's going to stand in the city hall. We want to be sure we're not getting a white elephant. If the chief of police is only going to keep it on Huron and Main streets it's a waste of money to buy one. Pretty soon he'll want more motorcycles and then he'll need more policemen." "Do I understand you to advocate the purchase of more than one motorcycle, Alderman Lutz?"-inquired President Mills. "Get half a dozen if it's necessary to stop speeding," retorted the alderman. "The object of getting one," explained Chief Apfel "is to find out what is needed. One man will be busy all right, as Alderman Lutz says. He will have all he can do. I suppose we'll have to have him on Main street one day and on other streets other days. Where we're short on is men. I think we have fewer policemen here than in any city of like size in Michigan." "We've been too economical with the police," repeated Alderman Lindenschmitt. "We have only eight policemen, while over at Adrian which is not any larger they have 12 and other cities of the same size have 16 or 20. We ought not to hesitate in giving the department a motorcycle." The recommendation of the police committee, presented by Alderman Schmid was adopted unanimously. |
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From Ann Arbor News February 10, 1938, p. 18 'Space-Hogs' Ousted By Use Of Parking Meters By Willis Player "Space-hogs" will be driven out of the congested areas in Ann Arbor if the city council decides to install parking meters. Space-hog is the term applied to the parker who leaves his car all day in the congested area of a city. These space-hogs are known to be one of the major causes of parking problems in busy districts. All-day parkers are usually employes [sic] of businesses located in the congested area. The employes drive to work and leave their cars on the street all day, thereby preventing shoppers from having the use of downtown parking space. Surveys show that parking time for the average shopper is 27 minutes. Thus, if a space-hog leaves his car in one spot for eight ours, he is wasting space that coulc be used that day by at least 32 shoppers during the day. Unless the space-hog leaves his business every hour to deposit a coin in the parking meter, the meter shows clearly that his car is parked overtime. This is the primary function of the parking meters, it enforces the parking ordinance. But in doing this, it also does several other things which are beneficial to the shopper or the merchant. Meters And The Shopper For example, a reason why meters might be favored by the woman driver is that they abolish undersized parking spaces. When she drives downtown to shop, she will be able to leave her car in a convenient 20-foot parking unit. And surveys have shown that there will almost always be one of these 20-foot units available for her use. This eliminates cruising about aimlessly in search of a place to park. And it also eliminates the driver who is forced to wiggle his car in and out of the traffic stream in an effort to put his car into an undersized parking space. Parking meters are also said to lessen the number of minor traffic accidents. Cut Accident Rate Atlantic City reports that its accident rate decreased 41 per cent after the installation of parking meters. And other cities, though definite figures are lacking, also seem to believe that parking meters have reduced the number of minor accidents. And a reduction in minor accidents means, of course, that the motorist does not have to pay out the money he would otherwise spend for minor repairs such as dented fenders. Still another advantage of parking meters is that they enable a comparatively small number of policemen to enforce the parking ordinances very effectively. Police cruising down the street in a squad car can easily see the bright flag on a parking meter and thereby tell when a car is parked overtime. Meters Help Merchants In many cities, merchants have found that parking meters have increased their business. The reason for this is apparently that when shippers know they can find a place to park their car, they more readily go downtown to shop. It is difficult to obtain exact figures on this. In Cumberland, Md., with a population of some 40,000, business in the larger stores increased about 10 per cent after meters were installed. Merchants in Fort Worth also found the parking meter a worthwhile device. Fort Worth merchants report that the woman shopper, in her anxiety to get back to her car, no longer stays to take up the store's time by talking to the clerk, sightseeing, or bargain hunting. Or Do They? On the other hand, it is reported that some merchants in Topeka, Kan., found business dropped 50 per cent after the installation of parking meters. West Haven, Conn., came to the conclusion that meters discourage tourists from shopping. Two Texas towns, Lubbock, with a population of 20,000, and Tyler, with a population of 17,000, also discovered that meters interfered with business. In practice, the meters seem to have been satisfactory to the merchants in most cases, unsatisfactory in some other cases. And there is as yet no scientific way of telling whether, in a given town, meters will assist or hamper downtown merchants. |
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From Ann Arbor News February 11, 1938, p. 3 Parking Meters Another Form of Tax On Motorist Do parking meters take money from the pockets of the buying public? Yes, they do. And when all the arguments against the parking meter are summed up, the most important objection to them is that the driver-shopper must add the parking fee to the price of his downtown purchase. This does not imply that parking meters are perfect devices for enforcing parking ordinances and regulating traffic. Even with parking meters in operation, a man may safely violate the parking ordinance or be involved in a minor accident. Can Add Another Coin For, if he wishes to park longer than the time allowed, he merely deposits another coin in the meter. And, many shoppers leave their parking unit before they use up all the time for which they have paid. This means that another shopper can use the rest of the first shopper's time without paying for it. If the motorist learns that on many occasions he can find a meter with as much as 30 minutes on it, he may in order to save money, cruise about in search of such a meter. And, by cruising, he may impede traffic flow or become involved in a minor accident, just as occurred before meters were in use. Meters Sometimes Illegal? Another difficulty concerning meters is the fact that the legality of certain types and of certain uses of meters is questionable. If the city arranges the ordinance to permit both penny and nickel parking, are the meters not becoming a device for taxation instead of a device for traffic regulation? Is the city not then in the position of selling space?Legal opinion is inclined to be sceptical [sic] as to this use of the parking meter. But it is, of course, an objection to a particular use of the meter, not to parking meters as a whole. Another point of doubt concerning parking meters is the question of whether they are really necessary. There are still traffic engineers who maintain that if a city is willing to expand its police force sufficiently so that certain officers can be assigned exclusively to parking, the parking problem will be solved just as efficiently as if meters were used and at less cost to the public. Uniform Has Influence They contend that the mere sight of a uniform on a beat and the knowledge that the parking ordinance is going to be enforced will combine to insure [sic] obedience to parking regulations. And they point out that the salaries of the additional policemen would not cost the public so much money as meter fees take from the public. Persons who have studied parking meters report, however, that most of the objections to meters disappear once meters have been in use several months. In answer to this, it has been said that the fact that the public always becomes accustomed to a new tax is not justification of a new tax. In other words, if meters are ever installed on a trial basis in Ann Arbor, the probability is that they will remain permanently. And if the people of Ann Arbor have objections to paying for parking, they should object before they become accustomed to parking meters and forget how much the meters are actually costing them. This, as mentioned before, is the greatest objection to parking meters: They cost the public money. In addition, there is the question of what is to be done with the large revenue collected from parking meters. Use of The Revenue If the more than $30,000, the potential yield of parking meters in Ann Arbor, is used to establish city parking lots, to improve streets and traffic lights or to establish a first-class traffic and accident bureau in the police department, the motorist will be receiving good dividends from his payments to the meters. If the revenue from meters is diverted into the general fund, the meters, which are already another tax on the motorist, become an unjustified tax on the motorist. And the motorist is already a highly taxed individual. So when all the arguments against parking meters are boiled down, it comes to this: The parking meter requires that the shopper pay for the privilege of parking. In Ann Arbor, the shopper would have to pay, in total, about $34,000 a year. That is a lot of money, and he has some right to ask what is to be done with that money. And when all the arguments for parking meters are summed up, it comes to this: Parking meters are a proved method of relieving congestion in busy areas-and, incidentally, they make the downtown of almost any city more pleasing in appearance. So in considering parking meters, this is the question the people of Ann Arbor must ask themselves: Is the privilege of parking near stores in the downtown area worth nickel a trip, 34,000 a year? |